90% of children infected at birth will develop chronic HBV, compared to 20-30% of children aged 1-5 and 1-5% of adults (Nebbia 2012)
The gastrointestinal epithelium works as a protection against external pathogens from entering the blood stream via the gut microbiota and the gastrointestinal lining as physical barriers
136 In addition, acquired astrocytopathies are prominent in hepatic encephalopathy (in which astrocytes lose their homoeostatic capabilities 137 ) and in neuromyelitis optica, in which the astrocyte protein, AQP4 is the subject of autoimmune attack, leading to dysfunction and death of astrocytes resulting in pronounced inflammation and degeneration of neural tissue
548,549 In addition, ageing may affect astrocyte-dependent neurotransmitter clearance, thus further limiting neuronal support
Immune cells are highly sensitive to oxidative stress during activation, and the intracellular glutathione pool can influence inflammatory signaling pathways and the balance between pro-oxidant and antioxidant responses
