In patients with active IBD, pro-inflammatory cytokines such as TNF-, IL-1, IL-6, IL-12, and IL-23 are significantly elevated, while anti-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-10 and IL-4 are expressed at insufficient levels [59, 60]
TGF is normally stored in the extracellular matrix as an inactive latent pro-protein complex
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Abomosallam M, Hendam BM, Abdallah AA, Refaat R, Elshatory A, Gad El Hak HN (2023) Neuroprotective effect of piracetam-loaded magnetic chitosan nanoparticles against thiacloprid-induced neurotoxicity in albino rats
Neuroimage 257:119273 Rosso IM, Crowley DJ, Silveri MM, Rauch SL, Jensen JE (2017) Hippocampus glutamate and N-acetyl aspartate markers of excitotoxic neuronal compromise in posttraumatic stress disorder