The signaling activity of bile acids arises from their capacity to bind to and modulate several nuclear and membrane receptors, including the nuclear FXR, pregnane X receptor (PXR), vitamin D receptor (VDR), and glucocorticoid receptor (GR), as well as the membrane-bound G protein-coupled receptors Takeda G protein-coupled receptor 5 (TGR5, also known as GPBAR1) and sphingosine 1-phosphate receptor 2 (S1PR2) (Table 1) [72,89]
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It is important to note that these doses were used in a controlled clinical trial setting and are not yet prescribed doses available via the NHS or licensed UK pharmacies